By Laura A. Cox, Ph.D., Department of Genetics, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, Alamo Area Aquatics Association, San Antonio, TX

Did you see the new television show “Life on Mars”? The main character is a police detective who is transported back in time from 2008 to 1973. During an investigation the main character asks his 1973 fellow-police detectives how long it will take to find out if fingerprints from a crime scene match any records in the database. One 1973 detective replies that it will take about 2 weeks. While the 2008 detective is thinking that two weeks is an incredibly long time and in 2008 it would only take a few hours, the second 1973 detective interjects that it’s amazing what technology can do to get the results back so quickly. As with crime detection, quick accurate results in sports drug testing can dramatically improve the odds of catching the bad guys.

This fictional story reminds us that technologies we take for granted today were beyond the realm of science fiction only 30 years ago. What does this have to do with drug testing in sport? Methods that are currently available for testing biological samples to identify genes, proteins, and many other substances were beyond imagination 30 years ago.

The classical approach in biology and medicine has been to test for one substance in one sample at a time. Tweaking the testing protocols might allow for increased throughput, i.e. faster sample processing, for testing for one substance in as many as 20 or 30 samples at one time. These methods were standard in the 1950’s through the early 1990’s. The convergence of increased computing power, implementation of stringent quality controls on reagents for testing, development of specialized software tools and machines in the late 1990’s has led to the development of methodologies that allow for testing of hundreds and even thousands of substances in a single sample.

In addition, these new technologies allow for analysis of hundreds of samples at once and require very small amounts of sample material. That is, using today’s technologies it is feasible to analyze samples from a few hundred individuals quantifying hundreds or thousands of substances at one time. And even though the current methods require much less sample material from each individual, the results are far more precise than previous methods. Because samples can be run in parallel, using less sample material and less time, these new technologies have dramatically reduced the cost of sample analysis for each substance from dollars to pennies and reduced the time to analyze samples from weeks to days.

In addition to more rapid testing and analysis, these new capabilities provide a “profile” on the thousands of genes or proteins in a sample and this profile is extremely sensitive to substances such as cigarette smoke and prescription drugs to name a few. This profile, which has been referred to as a physiological profile or a “physiological passport,” provides a detailed physiological fingerprint for each individual. Consequently, these new technologies allow us to not only ask: Do we find evidence of “Banned Substance X” in the sample from this athlete? But also allow us to ask: Do we see changes in a person’s physiological profile that suggests use of a banned substance?

In an era when some cheaters are collaborating with chemists for access to the latest designer steroid or growth hormone rather than using “Banned Substance X,” the availability of testing methods that identify abnormal profiles without prior knowledge of all substances currently in use by cheaters is a powerful tool. Biomedical scientists and clinicians transitioned to high throughput methods more than 7 years ago; maybe it’s time to increase the odds of catching the cheaters and leave behind the decades’ old approaches for drug testing in sport. If not, it’s just “Life on Mars” for clean athletes.

By Cal Botterill, Ph.D. who is a professor at the University of Winnipeg where he teaches sport psychology, growth and development, issues in sport, and psychological skills in sport and life. He has worked with seven world championship teams and athletes as well as numerous Olympians.

Is it possible to emotionally prepare for the Olympic Games? My initial reaction is that it is not easy, and although there are important things an athlete can do, it is probably impossible to totally prepare emotionally for such an experience. There is no denying how special the Olympic Games have become. The fact that they only occur every four years means that even top athletes often only get one shot at them in their prime;for many others, the cycle of “peaking” in their careers just doesn’t work out for an Olympic opportunity.

The history of the Olympic Games going back to early civilizations, the gallant ideals of the Olympic Movement, and the public and media interest in the agony and ecstasy of Olympic striving have created an almost irrational and irreverent mystique and aura around the Games.

The heartbreak, the exhilaration, the breakthrough accomplishments, and the team effort, even in relatively unknown sports, have captured the hearts and attention of people around the world in a very personal and emotional way. Most medal ceremonies bring tears to the eyes of those watching and listening, and we feel the emotions involved.

Even vicarious experience of an Olympics can exhilarate and drain us emotionally. If someone we know or love is involved, we are likely to feel the full spectrum of emotions before the experience ends.

For athletes and coaches, the “magnitude” of the Olympic Games is hard to prepare for because there really is no experience exactly like it. World championships and World Cups produce outstanding competition and increasing commercial interest, but there is absolutely nothing like a visit to an Olympic Village where top athletes from every part of the world are attempting to peak in a wide range of sports, coping at the same time with a huge international following.

Over the years, many athletes have gone to the Olympic Games and have later admitted to being “blown away” by the distractions, emotions, and aura of the Games. The commercial aspect of the Games can also be overwhelming, especially for those from less well-known sports. The media attention can be both exhilarating and disruptive. The entertainment options can be mind boggling with star entertainers often performing in the Village itself.

It is hard not to star gaze when interacting with the world’s greatest athletes. An unbelievable range of music, language, customs, food, uniforms, costumes, and cultures from around the world floods the senses.

The Olympic Games experience is craved by millions and experienced by few, For those who make it, the Olympics is an exhilarating festival and celebration. To be a satisfying experience, however, calls for perspective and focused excellence.

In order to prepare effectively for the Olympic Games, it is important to consider emotional preparation as well as technical, tactical, physical and mental preparation. Emotional preparation is related to and can influence all the other aspects of preparation, but it is probably most closely related to mental preparation.

In my estimation, when mental preparation breaks down or isn’t adequate, it is often because emotional preparation and management were not considered or were not accomplished well enough. Our feelings are what make us human, and they are the most difficult part of our total behavior to control and manage. Dr. Bill Glasser (1984) has identified the four key aspects of total behavior:

Clearly, all aspects of behavior and preparation interact and influence one another. Therefore, managing physiology and fitness as effectively as possible can help give an athlete the physical capacities and physiological state to help optimize feelings, focus, and performance.

As well, technical, tactical, and mental preparation can have a lot to do with optimizing times, strategies, thoughts, and behaviors to facilitate performance. Pre-competition plans, competition focus plans, and refocusing strategies can all have an important impact on feelings and focus.

Perhaps it is more than anything the refocusing strategies that begin to sensitize an athlete to the importance of emotional preparation. In order to be able to focus or refocus in distracting emotional conditions, it is critical to have a competition focus plan and a pre-competition routine.

In addition, it is critical to consider the full spectrum of emotions that an athlete might experience at the Games. Dr. Bob VaRerand (1984), who has done an extensive review of emotions and sport, acknowledges that there is a tremendous spectrum of feelings that humans can experience, but suggests that there are seven basic emotions (or categories of emotions) that seem to define being “human.” These are fear, anger, guilt/embarrassment, surprise, sadness, happiness and interest.

In addition, there are variations or combinations of these basic emotions including resentment, jealousy, and envy. It would not be surprising to find Olympic athletes who have experienced extremely strong feelings in every category as part of their experience at the Games. For the most part, happiness and interest are a big part of what it is all about. Feeling ecstatic about being involved, grateful to be here, and excited about the opportunities and challenges produce a flood of positive emotions. I remember Jay Triano commenting at the ’84 Olympics in Los Angeles that it was more than anything he could have imagined! There were strong feelings of surprise even though Jay was one of the most creative and deeply prepared athletes I have ever met.

Along with the positive surprise possibilities, there are also negative surprise possibilities. At one moment Jay would admit he was almost overwhelmed by the positive surprise occurrences – Lionel Ritchie singing in the Village, Michael Jordan getting ready to play Canada, NBC interviews, expensive new uniforms, and on and on.

Emotions, though, are known to swing and the next day, when practicing at a remote high school gym, the media are off covering other sports, local transport is delayed in traffic, or the team loses a game it should have won, the Village can seem remote and lonely. After years of preparing for positive excitement, the effects of negative surprise can be emotionally draining and debilitating.

Jay would admit that the times the Games were less than he ever imagined were every bit as difficult to cope with and maintain focus through as the “highs.” Athletes clearly have to be prepared for considerable fluctuation in their emotions as well as the range in their feelings.

Surprise can also come in the form of opponent behavior or performance, officiating, playing conditions, weather conditions, crowd conditions, teammate behavior or emotions, or media scrutiny. Clearly, it is critical to be emotionally prepared for a variety of surprise conditions so the ability to refocus is not delayed or affected by the strength or depth of the feelings.

Fear, anger, and maybe guilt or embarrassment often accompany negative surprise. Because the Olympics are perceived as being so important, it is not at all unusual to be flooded with negative emotions the moment a negative surprise presents itself.

It is important to remember that all these emotions have functional value. Fear, for example, can trigger preparation, prevent complacency, and facilitate focus. On the other hand, if an athlete is not ready for possible and likely fear feelings in this setting, the emotion can be debilitating.

For an athlete, anger can be a call to compete, to fight and perform for what he or she is entitled. Like so many emotions, anger is important to respond to but not overreact to! If and when anger is felt, an athlete needs to be prepared to channel the energy it produces into dynamic, responsive, constructive performance rather than allowing it to lead to discipline or attention problems.

The source of anger can be an opponent, a teammate, an official, a delay, conditions, or the athletes themselves, which leads to another important emotional category: guilt/embarrassment.

Guilt and embarrassment are related and have a lot to do with our ability to respond to mistakes or disappointments and our feelings of obligations towards others. An athlete may feel embarrassed if an unheralded opponent surprises her and she does not initially perform as well as she should against her. If an athlete is not ready for this possibility, it is easy to also start feeling “guilty’ about not preparing better and possibly letting teammates down.

The athlete who is emotionally ready for these feelings can quickly channel the energy from them into effort, increased attentiveness, learning, and growth.

Probably the main functions of surprise related emotions are to trigger learning and coping responses. They test our adaptability and ensure that we don’t become bored or complacent. These emotions obviously have survival-tested functional significance. The key then is for an athlete to appreciate the value of negative emotions, qualitatively prepare for their occurrence, and use their energy to respond effectively.

All emotional categories have energy with the exception of sadness, which clearly has functional value in grieving and recovery. After grieving (sadness, low energy, reflection, melancholy), we usually end up grateful to be alive (happiness) and refocused on the opportunities/challenges of life (interest). Sadness has been experienced by many Olympic athletes, probably never more deeply than in 1972 over the massacre of Israeli athletes and coaches in Munich.

Sadness can be very sensitizing and it can help an athlete regain perspective and priorities, things that can sometimes get lost in the magnitude of the Games. On the other hand, sadness is low energy so athletes wanting optimal results at an Olympics cannot afford to let themselves dwell on feelings of melancholy, reflectiveness, or self-pity.

It is critical to recognize that these feelings may well occur at an Olympics. It is important to be prepared if they occur and to be able to “let go” and move on to more energizing emotions.

It is also important to remember that an athlete who is not emotionally ready for some of the other emotions or feelings and who does not respond quickly and constructively enough can often end up sad or feeling sorry for himself. If, for example, surprise from an unheralded opponent produces embarrassment followed by feelings of guilt and the athlete does not respond quickly and dynamically enough, the result may be continued impairment of performance as the athlete starts to be flooded by sadness, reflectiveness, self-pity, and so on. Later on, of course, the athlete will be very frustrated with this response.

Similarly, if fear or anger dominates for any length of time without constructive responses, they usually lead to frustration, then exhaustion which is usually correlated with such emotions as sadness and melancholy.

It is clear then that athletes should understand and accept the spectrum of emotions we experience as human beings. It seems crazy to prepare technically, tactically, physically, and mentally for thousands of hours to optimize potential on one special occasion in their lives and not carefully consider emotional preparation.

Feelings sometimes have every bit as much to do with performance as focus, fitness, skills and tactics. It is important to go over the spectrum of emotions an athlete might experience and rehearse effective responses to these feelings. Rehearsal produces a form of emotional stress inoculation which tests an athlete’s response and readiness for those feelings, many of which are inevitable around important competitions.

A review of mental and tactical plans should first identify potential situations where these emotions may be a factor and then develop and rehearse effective responses. With so much at stake, athletes want to be mentally tough and emotionally resilient.

* Review the seven basic emotions that human beings feel.

* Imagine situations at the Games that could trigger each of these emotions.

* Feel the feelings deeply and passionately.

* Let go;accept that strong feelings can be functional and understandable.

* Rehearse effective responses in the midst of or following, these powerful feelings.

* Simulate circumstances and situations that will help you to more fully experience your emotional reaction and response.

* Enjoy the feeling of being emotionally “inoculated” and ready for any feeling, challenge, or change.

Emotional preparation involves emotional management. There are a number of important aspects to work on and maintain going into an Olympics. Each involves “capacities” and a “state.” Physical fitness, for example, needs to be refined through a taper [ Coaches Report, Vol. 2 No. 31 so that key physical capacities are developed or maintained without draining physical, mental, or emotional reserves through overtraining . Emphasis shifts from quantity to quality training with great hydration, nutrition and rest patterns to help optimize one’s physical, mental, and emotional state.

Good fitness management, however, dictates that there is enough quality training and “work” for therapeutic effects, confidence, and concentration. Mental fitness is also a set of capacities and a state. It is important for an athlete to work on and maintain mental skills during the countdown stretch. Visualization, imagery, relaxation, energizing, “parking,” focusing, relationship management, and time management can all play a critical role as an athlete refines these skills as part of pre-competition routines, competition focus plans, and refocusing strategies.

Once again though, it is important to ensure that the athlete not get overloaded with too many cognitive or mental demands as the Games approach. The resulting stress and distraction can mask mental skills the same way physical overload or poor nutrition can mask physical capacities. The result, of course, can be emotional, mental and physical drain.

Being clear minded should be an important objective going into the Games. Once again though, it is critical to feel focused and occupied and to avoid falling into the human tendency to start overanalyzing. It has been suggested that “nothing never happens”;in the absence of a constructive focus our minds sometimes start “over-thinking” or “over-perceiving.”

· Enjoy the emotional spectrum that is part of life.

· Accept and experience feelings, let them go, and channel the energy into growth and effective responses.

· Respect the power and positive and negative significance of emotions on your system.

· Manage relationships and time so that you do not become emotionally drained at key times in your life, especially when working hard physically and mentally.

· Let go of irrational beliefs and perspectives.

· Reaffirm your mission, values, and perspective.

· Live. Never have to say, “I wish I would have …’

An athlete should be confident in mental skills going into the Games. Responses to stress and boredom should automatically be constructive, and time and relationship skills should be crisp and effective. Creative simulations, quality training sessions, and lead-up competitions can help ensure the rust is off attention and competitive skills during the countdown.

Simulations also play a critical role in developing emotional fitness. By simulation and rehearsing responses to some of the most demanding, distracting, or emotionally disturbing possibilities, an athlete tests emotional skills, capacities, and responses.

It may not always be fun to prepare for the full spectrum of emotional possibilities but with practice, athletes develop an inner confidence in their capacities to maintain focus and respond effectively.

The athlete becomes mentally tough and learns to accept, harness, and respond to the full spectrum of emotions. She begins to see that all emotions are functional and is able to manage them a lot better. She becomes emotionally resilient, knowing that a wide range of emotions for energy and feelings can be called on.

It is critical that an athlete not allow himself to become emotionally drained prior to or during the Games. Once again, emotional skills and capacities can be eroded if the emotional state is allowed to deteriorate.

Emotional exhaustion is probably the key component in burnout and overtraining. It is amazing what human beings can do physically and mentally, but it is usually emotional exhaustion that buries them. Therefore, it is critical to make emotional management an important part of fitness and countdown considerations.

There have been stories of phenomenal emotional resilience in sport. Witness Sylvie Frechette’s performance at the Olympics after her fiancé’s suicide, and her classy response after initially losing the gold medal on a judging system effort! There are phenomenal stories that demonstrate that we can sometimes draw on “emotional reserves” we do not even know we have. On the other hand, athletes going into an Olympics striving for personal best in a very emotional environment should try and be sure their emotional reserves are not depleted. If possible, things like relationships with loved ones, school or career demands, health risks, opponent hostilities, financial pressures, community or environmental concerns, and media pressures should be managed to minimize emotional drain prior to and during the Games.

It is important to have recently “tested” the full range of emotions and rehearsed effective responses. It is equally critical to be emotionally rested and able to call on the full spectrum of feelings and responses to optimize potential in challenging circumstances.

Emotions and perspective

Another important part of emotional management is to periodically check perspective. It is important to be on a “mission” to accomplish a personal best at the Olympics, but in spite of all the hype, aura, and mystique of the Games, maintaining a rational perspective is critical.

Checking to ensure irrational beliefs or perceptions do not develop can prevent a lot of emotional turmoil and pressure. Because the Olympics happen infrequently, it is easy to exaggerate their perceived importance to the point where the athlete starts feeling that self-worth and life are on the line. The Olympics are an exciting opportunity, but they do not determine an athlete’s worth as a person. That is determined in so many other ways. Witness Olympian Johann Olav Koss and his life beyond sport, raising support for hospitals and charities, and pursuing meaningful career opportunities.

Similarly, Dan Jansen’s accomplishments as an Olympian pale in comparison to his relationships with his family, including handling the loss of his sister to cancer and the love and support of his family through heartbreak in pursuit of excellence.

Feelings of patriotism and responsibility to others can lead an athlete to thinking he or she must perform for others. Narrowing this perception and pressure to wanting to perform for self and teammates is much more rational and emotionally less stressful.

The high standards and ideals of an Olympics can also lead to feelings of needing to be perfect. Perfection by definition and reality is impossible, so it is important for an athlete to rationally remind herself that the Olympics are about the pursuit of excellence. Striving for situational, personal, and team excellence is what it is all about, and if mistakes, setbacks, or challenges occur in the Games, it is important to be ready and enjoy the challenge of responding optimally.

With the stakes so high, we expect that things will and must be fair. Close scrutiny reveals countless Olympic situations that do not appear personally or professionally fair. The judging mishap in Sylvie Frechette’s case or runner Mary Decker’s fall due to crowding during the 1984 Olympics middle distance event are examples where the world doesn’t seem fair!

It is important then to be prepared for the possibility that an athlete may not always have a level playing field and should be prepared to respond to adversity if it occurs. An expectation that everything will always be fair can lead to considerable emotional frustration and fluctuation. On the other hand, someone who has developed a “no excuses” outlook and has prepared for the many challenges and emotions of the Games is lot more likely to accomplish a personal best.

Cliff Wurtak, an elite ringette coach preparing for the Canada Winter Games, suggested that his athletes adopt a simple outlook in preparing and participating – “Never have to say I wish I would have!”

This sentiment suggests clearly that it is important for an athlete to do everything possible to physically, mentally, and emotionally prepare for the Games. It also suggests that the athlete be ready to be assertive, feel license to go for it, and make the most of the opportunities presented. And it suggests that the athlete be ready to fully experience and respond to the emotions and challenges of the Games.

I would say to each of our Olympic athletes: Walk away knowing you gave it your best shot and exulted in the opportunity to test yourself in one of the most prestigious and emotional environments in the world. Accept that you can never totally control your emotions that is part of the challenge of being human. With emotional preparation, practice, and management we can often come closer to our situational potential.

Compete with passion, perspective, and preparation and be all you can be as you pursue your Olympic destiny. I wish you physical prowess, a clear mind, and an unburdened heart. Citius, Altius,, Fortius!

References: Glasser, V 1984. Control Theory, Harper &Row, New York. / Vallerand, R.J. 1984. “Emotion in Sport,” Cognitive Sport Psychology, Straub, W., and J. Williams (eds.) Sport Science Associates, Lansing, New York

by Chelsea R. Warr, B.Sp.Sc;Grad. Dip. Phy. Ed

Department of Physiology and Applied Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport

International sports competition is inevitably linked to overseas travel. With Australia being so globally isolated from prominent sporting events often occurring in the northern hemisphere, our athletes are undertaking extended flights and expected to compete optimally days later. Furthermore, many Australian athletes are travelling more frequently for exposure to environmental stressors such as heat and altitude in the attempt to enhance performance. The repercussions of extended flights are a general nuisance to the tourist traveller. For the elite athlete, rapid time zone travel undoubtedly impairs their potential in competition and in some instances can severely compromise performance.

Coaches commonly report noticeable decreases in various components of athletic performance between days 2-4 following extended flights. Performance gradually returns to normal by day 6 for most individuals (Lawrence 1993). Scientists suggest that this decrement in performance is caused by the dysynchronization of circadianrhythms (Your Biological Clock, Hill 1993, Shephard 1989, Reilly 1984, Winget 1988). More commonly, athletes and coaches attribute their poor performance to “jetlag.”

Although jetlag is inevitable with transmeridian flying, following simple procedures can help to prevent and alleviate many symptoms that can affect athletic performance. Furthermore, these procedures also hasten the resynchronization phase upon arrival, allowing the athlete to adjust to local time and complete usual training loads. The following is an outline of practical strategies implemented by Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) coaches, athletes and sports science/medicine staff when travelling overseas.

It is well documented that rapid time zone travel causes circadian dysrhythmia (jetlag). Jetlag occurs when there is a mismatch between the external zeitgebers (environmental time givers such as light and social interaction) and the internal body clock of an individual. More simply, the body’s internal clock becomes confused between the place of departure and place of arrival. This confusion is often characterized by malaise and a host of other symptoms including loss of appetite, tiredness and disturbed sleep, all of which contribute to poor athletic performance (O’Conner 1990).

Body arousal levels, temperature, strength and flexibility fluctuate over a 24 hour period. They peak in the late afternoon or early evening and are at a minimum by early morning. Consequently it may be expected that peak sports performance will coincide with peak levels of these parameters, i.e. in the late afternoon or early evening (Eichner 1988, Shephard 1984, Hill 1993). Literature cites many other examples of improved performance later in the day.

When athletes travel across time zones their normal 24 hour cycle of peaks and troughs in body arousal levels, temperature, strength and flexibility will no longer correspond with the day/night cycle of the destination. That is, their internal body clock is out of synch with the true time. For example, a 3 pm competition schedule in the new destination may equate to 3 am (sleeping time) in the previous one. How can the body work optimally when presented with such a scenario?

In knowing that international air travel can disturb the precise timing of various hormonal and physiological rhythms, it is prudent for coaches and athletes to:

• Implement preflight jetlag programs.
• Undertake in-flight anti-jetlag procedures.
• Use strategies to hasten resynchronization of the internal clock after arrival.
• Modify initial training sessions during the adjustment phase.

What Affects the Severity of Jetlag?

Understanding the variables that affect the severity of jetlag can help coaches program sufficient recovery time while travelling on tour. Naturally, not all athletes will be affected in the same way, or to the same degree, but there is a distinct possibility that some disruption will occur.

1. Number of times zones crossed.

   The severity of jetlag is proportional to the number of time zones crossed. A rule of thumb calculation would allow about one day recovery for each hour of the clock shifted going west but slightly less for an east bound flight (Jones 1995). Coaches should assess the degree of disturbance by the direction of travel chosen and where possible plan to minimize the amount of time zones crossed altogether.

2. Direction of flight.

   Westward flights, in which the body clock is delayed, appear to require a shorter recovery time than east bound flights where an advancement to the body clock occurs. Time shifts of up to six hours appear more tolerable than longer travel periods. Coaches should plan to break up considerably longer journeys for faster recovery.

3. Hydration status.

   The dry atmosphere in an aircraft cabin can cause a travelling athlete to become dehydrated (Bond 1988). Hydration status is further compromised by athletes spending time in air-conditioned hotel rooms and airports. Dehydration often contributes to many of the common symptoms of jetlag such as headache, malaise and disorientation.

4. Social interaction/personalities.

   Those who engage in social interaction following arrival seem to adapt significantly faster those who remain socially isolated (Loat et al 1989). Social interaction is considered to be a strong zeitgeber for circadian re-entrainment, therefore suggesting that an extrovert copes better with jetlag than an introvert.

5. Pharmaceutical intervention.

   Although sleeping agents do not directly resynchronize circadian rhythms, they may relieve insomnia, a common symptom of jetlag.

6. Jetlag minimization programs and travel experience.

   Circadian dysrhythmia is inevitable with rapid time zone travel, however anti-lag programs can minimize the acute symptoms an athlete may experience (Lawrence 1993). Those who are more experienced at travelling adapt more quickly than novices.

Guidelines for Travelling Athletes and Coaches

Preflight:

Pre-planning and organization is the key to a successful trip and will minimize athletes becoming distracted from the task at hand.

1. Pre-book aisle or exit row seating to allow more room to stretch especially when travelling with teams of taller athletes (e.g. basketballers).
2. Special meals on most major airlines can be easily arranged with as little notice as 36 hours prior to departure. Examples include low fat and vegetarian. Some airlines even provide athlete meals for group bookings (e.g. low fat, high carbohydrate). Avoid overeating. Remember that you are sedentary, perhaps even tapering, hence your caloric intake will not be high.
3. To avoid transit hunger, pack healthy snacks which need minimum storage fuss and are long lasting (e.g. fruits, dried crackers, sport energy bars, liquid meals).
4. AIS physicians suggest that pharmaceutical intervention to combat sleep difficulties during long haul flights should be based on individual preferences. Should athletes choose to use prescribed sleeping agents, trial at least one week before departing to observe potential side effects.
5. Providing players with cultural profiles of the particular countries to be visited allows them to become familiar with local customs, foods, weather etc.
6. Make contact with the proposed accommodation to determine when sporting facilities are available for guests.

During the Flight:

Maintaining Hydration – The oxygen concentration and humidity of aircraft cabins are considerably lower than normal air. This dry environment can cause athletes to lose more than 300ml of water per hour depending on their body size, with larger athletes losing significantly more.

1. Drink at least 300ml of fluid, preferably water every hour, to remain well-hydrated. This equates to 1.5 standard cups per hour (approximately 10 small airline cups!).
2. Pack water bottles or sport drinks with you and have them seated in the front pocket as a reminder to drink frequently and stay well-hydrated.
3. Avoid coffee, tea, carbonated drinks and alcohol which are offered during the flight. Many of these act as diuretics and can contribute to further dehydration.
4. Wet towels and water sprays can help to avoid dryness developing in the nose and throat.

Foods:

1. Avoid overeating as inactivity on the plane means that you actually require a smaller caloric intake than required for a normal training day.
2. Adjusting your meal times to those of the country you are heading to can prompt the resynchronization process.

Activity:

1. In-flight stretching programs discreetly done from your seat can aid “travellers thrombosis” (e.g. pins and needles, swelling). Moving around the plane from time to time is also helpful.
2. Transit stops are also a good opportunity to do some light exercise.
3. Adjust your watch to the destination time when boarding the plane and try to synchronize daily routines accordingly. In-house entertainment and blackout eye pads may help.

Upon Arrival:

Diet, exercise, sunlight and social interaction are the key environmental cues (zeitgebers) to allow resynchronization.

1. Stay awake even if you are tired. Unpacking luggage, stretching and light exercise (e.g. swimming) are favorable options.
2. Social interaction and natural sunlight is an excellent re-entrainment tool so go outdoors and do a little socializing!
3. Where possible, schedule un-taxing introductory matches and training.
4. Initial training sessions need to be easy to moderate and carefully monitored by the coaching staff.
5. Avoid taking sedatives as they delay the natural adjustment process.

Training Recommendations Following Travel.

Lawrence and colleagues (1993) from the Western Australian Institute of Sport reported a significant reduction in 20 meter sprint performance and reaction time on day 34 of arrival in female national hockey team representatives.

A concurrent deterioration in coordination and technical aspects of performance was also noted by the head coach. Performance gradually returned to pre-departure levels by around day 7. Practical recommendations. The following recommendations are based on the outcomes of this and similar studies.

1. Initial training sessions should be light to allow the body to recover from the flight experience. Exercise modalities should focus on flexibility and promote movement through the full joint range available (e.g. swimming).
2. During early days of arrival encourage all team members to implement additional therapeutic forms of recovery into their programs. Hydrotherapies (e.g. contrasting temperature showers and spas), restorative massage and mental relaxation techniques are therapies promoted by AIS recovery specialists.
3. Skills and technique often deteriorate during the adjustment phase. Coaches should work on basics to avoid frustration developing among players during the first few training sessions.
4. Morning sessions should focus on more detailed instructions such as combination work and tactical plays. Afternoon sessions should include basic drills and recovery work.
5. Encourage athletes to keep tour diaries, providing psychological and physiological feedback for the coach on how the athlete is adapting.
6. Coaches may revert to the standard program around days 4-6.

It is apparent that no one program will satisfy all athletes travelling hence the coach will need to assess each individual’s progress in preparation for early competitions. Standard selection criteria to compete must be flexible. This often means allowing players who are lacking form during initial sessions to compete, in order to maintain their morale for events scheduled later.

New Products

Various new products are presently on the market which claim to alleviate dehydration and dysrhythmia caused by aircraft travel. Although these have not been scientifically proven to enhance athletic performance, many current AIS sports use these products in order to alleviate symptoms they report hamper their performance.

Humidiflyer

The humidification mask which claims to reduce dehydration during aircraft travel and acts as a bacteriostatic filter. Many AIS programs such as Netball, Athletics and Swimming feel confident that it is a useful product for alleviating symptoms of dehydration such as headache and malaise. No noticeable side effects have been reported.

Details: Retails at approximately AU $30.00 – Worn for 50% of total flying time – Reusable for 100 hours of air travel – Available from “Humidifier Technologies” PO Box 168, Neutral Bay, NSW.

Melatonin

Melatonin is a natural hormone released by the pineal gland in the brain which is involved in the regulation of the body’s internal clock. American researchers are currently manufacturing a synthesized version of melatonin which claims to improve alertness and help with sleep disturbances. Melatonin is currently unavailable in Australia and banned in every country but the US, where melatonin is sold in drug and health food stores. Research currently underway in Adelaide may provide more substantial information about these claims.

Details: Not approved for sale in Australia, however individuals can import up to three months supply for their own use. Relatively inexpensive retailing- under AU$15 for 60 three milligram capsules (a supposed two month supply). Preliminary studies recommend 3-5 mg, taken before bed for 5 consecutive days upon arrival. Melatonin is most effective when the athlete is exposed to a regular day and night cycle. Recommended dosage and optimal administration time is still under research.

Conclusions:

Too often coaches and athletes ignore simple and practical procedures which can restore athletes’ pre-departure performance levels significantly faster following international air travel. A comprehensive approach to travel and planning ahead will optimize performance in athletes and contribute to success.

References:

Bond J, Minimizing Jetlag and Jet-stress. Sports Coach 1988 P 55-56 / Eichner E.R. Circadian Timekeepers in Sport. Physician and Sports Medicine 16: (2) P 79-84, 1988. / Jones M. Keeping in Time. New Scientist (V 89) P 14 1996 / Hill D, Effects of Jetlag on factors related to Sport Performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology;18 (1) P 91-103, 1993 / Lawrence et al;Aspects of Jet lag. Sports Coach, April-June P 6-9 1993 / Loat C, Jetlag and Human Performance. Sports Medicine;8(4) P 226-238, 1989 / Minors et al, Introduction: the travelling athlete. Coaching Focus (Leeds, England: (25), Spring 1994, P 20-21 / O’Conner, P-J;Morgan, -WP Athletic Performance following travel across multiple time zones: a review. Sports Medicine;10(1) P 20-30, 1990 / Reilly T, Circadian rhythms and Exercise. In: McLeod, Maughan RJ, Nimmo M, Reilly T C eds Exercise: Benefits, Limits and Adaptations. E and FN Spon, London, 1987: 346-366 / Shephard R Sleep, Biorhythms and Human Performance. Sports Medicine 1:11-36, 1984 / Winget C, Circadian rhythms and athletic performance. Medicine Science and Sports Exercise, 17(5), P 498516, 1985

Understanding the variables that affect the severity of jetlag can help coaches program sufficient recovery time while travelling on tour. Naturally, not all athletes will be affected in the same way, or to the same degree, but there is a distinct possibility that some disruption will occur.

Stress and Its Relationship to Swimming

From The Australian Swim Coaches Magazine
By Bernie Wakefield

Burned-out, Stressed-out, Over-worked, Over-trained and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome are some of the designer terminologies used to describe the chronically exhausted athlete. Are they signs of an emerging illness or are they just euphemisms for sheer laziness or, taken to extreme levels, cop-outs for dodging the hard yakka?

Here are some others: Over-reaching, Staleness, Flattened and “Down the Mine.” Are these terms solid evidence of severe fatigue, stress or impending illness? To the swimmer suffering those accruing symptoms they certainly are genuine! Every day the daily paper carries reports of sporting people engaged in intensive competition, in anguish from similar manifestations that have seriously affected them for a period of time. There appears to be some misunderstanding on two of the most common idioms in usage, over-training and over-reaching. This is the official medical explanation of both terms.

Over-reaching, is simply a planned overload program combined with rest periods designed to enable the athlete to adapt fully or partly, depending on the ultimate goal. During this period it is possible for that person to sustain excessive fatigue. Regeneration processes such as spas and massage will hasten restoration when in this mode.

To use the expression “over-training syndrome” is to describe a pathological state that is rapidly approaching an immunological disaster! This could mean months of rest and recuperation.

Scientists tell us that the devastating glandular fever bug (Epstein-Barr) is almost certainly a by-product of the over-training syndrome. The question is, and should be on the lips of every coach, is science any closer to solving the mystery of these debilitating illnesses? The answer is, yes!

IMMUNOLOGY
Hans Selye, earlier this century, explained the far reaching effects of stress in all its ugly forms in his learned book on this subject. Much later, Theodore Bompa (1983) delved into the stress factor in swimming with some startling conclusions – but no tangible proof, Billings, Parry et. al. (1992) attacked the subject with much enthusiasm and demonstrated that an inefficient immune system was the running mate of a broken-down athlete.

More recently some revealing evidence has arrived from the UK from one E.A. Newsholme who observed that a glutamine deficiency in the body of the tired athlete heralded the origin-in of the over-training enigma. (Nat. Coaching Foundation 1995) He offered this hypothesis for consideration.

Amongst all the cells in the immune system, the lymphocyte cell is the one identified as the catalyst that invokes a deadly response to the invading bacteria. Specifically lethal is the lymphocyte cell known as the T-helper. These cells are the little warriors’ which multiply rapidly to repel the intruding organism. The process that requires this defined increase in numbers is called synthesisation. In the presence of the amino acid, glutamine, new precursor molecules are formed inside the T-helper and these little trailblazers synthesize into molecules of RNA and DNA. In these optimal conditions, duplications of the new cells take place.

Our hero, glutamine, is in heavy demand during this process;indeed, it is required in huge amounts for the creation to occur. Furthermore, and this is an important link in the chain of cellular activity as Parry-Billings et. al. 1992, report: a decrease in the availability of glutamine will result in a low multiplication of cells and in consequence, a poor defense against bacteria and viruses.

As the demand for glutamine in the exercising athlete soars, it follows that storage of this substance is a necessity to deflect the ever present threat of illness. If it were stored in one area it would require an organ the size of the liver to house it.

Now, glutamine generally enters the body from the ingestion of proteins but the intestines absorb most of these so further supplies have to be synthesized by the body. This action occurs, logically enough, in the skeletal muscle which also stores and releases it on an as-required basis. In view of this dramatic evidence, the muscle has to be considered an integral part of the immune system. Is the picture coming into focus?

Newsholme postulates that a lack of glutamine would produce a suppressive effect on the immune system if the athlete has entered an over-training phase. Inevitably, this is confirmed by a slow response of the lymphocytes to infection. Another victim of Glandular Fever bites the dust! In other studies supporting the theory of glutamine deficiency in the blood of over-trained athletes it has been shown that marathoners demonstrated reduced levels that remained low for several weeks after the event (Parry-Billings, Budgett, Koutedakis, Blomstrand, Brooks &Williams 1992).

MENTAL FATIGUE
Newsholme, likewise maintains that mental fatigue in the athlete also may be a product of amino acid activity. Among the 20 odd amino acids found in proteins is one called Tryptophan. When it enters the brain it converts to a neurotransmitter serotonin, known to medicine as 5-HT. These are simply chemical messengers and one of their functions is the control of sleep patterns.

The belief is, that during exercise, especially of the intensive endurance type, fat stored in the tissues releases free fatty acids into the blood. A chemical reaction then takes place in the brain releasing a marked increase of tryptophan which in turn results in increased proportions of 5-HT. The suspicion exists that unexpected brain fatigue in the active athlete may result from this procedure.

Still on the subject of amino acids, there exists a group of branched chain amino acid champions’ known as Leucine, Isoleucine and Valine. Sounds like Roman gladiators! These goodies’ compete with the baddies’ like tryptophan for entry into the brain. Now, if the blood levels of branched chain amino acids were elevated during training or competition there would be a marked decrease in the extent of 5-HT and Tryptophan. This, Newsholme assures, would counter the effect of fatigue.

There is research being carried out at this time to reduce the degree of fatigue by drinking certain fluids containing branched chain amino acids. (Newsholme, Leech Deuster 1994). It may be of interest that Australian swim teams on tour are advised by the accompanying sports scientists to ingest isotonic drinks not only in training situations but also during race swim-downs. The question is, do they contain the necessary branch chain amino acids required for recovery or are they simply loaded with carbohydrates?

So we have two possible scenarios involving stressing of swimmers that demand a normal restoration of glutamine and tryptophan levels. Simplified, one is the fatigue syndrome within the brain and the other, and perhaps a worse situation, an immune system dysfunction.

Both these problems are alleviated or even cured by rest and medication, but sometimes this can be a very real dilemma if the condition becomes chronic, requiring complete rehabilitation. Even a mild to moderate situation can result in loss of form and speed, so we need a simple and fast acting remedy.

Is it possible that the glycogen loaded sport drinks now being flogged’ can be of assistance? There remains serious doubt on that issue but it is probable that sometime in the near future a fluid of complex compounds will be marketed that can assist in keeping those glutamine levels normal.

Within the last year an intensive study of the over-training problem was carried out by scientists from the University of Western Australia. (Rowbottom, Keast, Goodman and Morton Nov. 94) A wide range of parameters was measured on 10 athletes who were apparently suffering from this symptom. The data obtained makes for fascinating reading. So intense was the research that many parameters once considered responsible for distress within training schedules were claimed to be dismissed as likely candidates.

It was suggested that the OTS was unrelated to the traditional villains normally associated with over-training. Some of those little nasties found innocent of producing havoc in the immune system were: low ferritin concentrations and elevated uric acid and phosphokinase and cortisol levels. After eliminating these false prophets of doom as flawed material, they queried the possibility of decreased concentrations of glutamine as the real culprit. Using Newsholme’s theory that glutamine was a key substrate for cells of the immune system, essential for an immune response and therefore resulting in a defective immune function if the levels were inadequate, they clinically measured plasma glutamine concentrations in the OTS subjects.

The information revealed in this study showed that a lower concentration of glutamine levels could be a negative result of either excessive exercise or over-training and could lead to illness or burn-out. They concluded also that elevated levels in the well-trained athlete represented a positive adaptation to a well-balanced program. Now that opens up some possibilities! From this observation it would be reasonable to assume that auditing plasma glutamine production could be an excellent marker for future diagnosis of this condition. Yes!

OVER-TRAINING AND EARLY DETECTION
Bompa (1983) described in some detail the concept of an optimal training, program. Simplified, it followed this format;Stress – Overload – Adaptation. If we followed that policy to the letter it means that the athlete would be in a constant state of stress as all the work would be hovering close to toleration limits, that is, just a tick or two outside complete breakdown.

Up until recently, it has been most difficult evaluating the predicament of decline. Sudden decreases in performance for no apparent reason are shell-shocking to all associated with the concerned person. The dilemma in obtaining a precise diagnosis when this occurred, was setting up a standardized test methodology to obtain information under laboratory conditions. Testing for a satisfactory result meant setting the anaerobic performance indicators at an intensity around 10% above their maximal lactate steady state and testing to exhaustion. This posed some problems. The idea of this exercise was to examine hormonal concentrations in the over-trained state. More later.

Experience tells us that some swimmers can endure more severe workloads than others. Those others often have good reasons why they cannot perform to the same standard. Astute coaches are aware of these people and modify the work so they can gain optimal benefits. Usually they have suffered a physical problem in the past such as a serious illness, or they simply just don’t have the innate ability to work to that high degree.

These swimmers need careful attention for it is often they who frequently fall ill. Blood tests sometimes tell a vivid story (viral, low iron etc.) but often not, and their inability to work hard may ever remain a mystery. We can all tell stories of swimmers who would certainly have reached the top but were prevented from doing so by unexplained sickness.

The workers, those who blast through every session in a big hurry to reach elite class, also need a cautious approach. When they fall, they go fast and fall a long way and usually take a long time to recover. The answer to all these vexing problems is to closely monitor and measure the swimmers’ profiles. What are the measuring devices?

Heart rate monitors can sometimes be a valuable tool in assessing a swimmer. Not only is it a measure of their fitness condition but can even detect infection or illness. A high heart pulse while doing medium work is a certain sign of a problem brewing in the immune system. A low response to a given workload may indicate an incomplete recovery. A readout remaining high for longer than normal is a dead give away that something is amiss. The old reliable stopwatch may be one of the best tools available. Couple times with the work response and only blind Freddie could miss the connotations.

Monitor the swimmer at all times for perception of stress and how they are handling it. View anything outside normal behavior with utmost caution. Evaluating your swimmer visually is almost an exact science – if you are attentive. In the water, check times for a certain effort, listen to the breathing, the color of the skin, their reactions to other squadies’ times and their emotive actions at critical speeds. Out of the water, look at eyes, personality changes, reluctance at entering water, mood swings etc. At home, parents can monitor sleep patterns, eating habits, irritability, low enthusiasm and school results. Any irregular conduct that remains constant for 3 or 4 days could be considered abnormal and require further investigation.

RECOVERY
Probably the most critical factor in supervising progress is estimating sufficient recovery before advancing up the workload ladder. Recovery itself is often a time consuming exercise and one that has attracted little scientific research. Consequently the coach is much on his own in this area and each swimmer has to be appraised separately. Perceptions of soreness, fatigue, times for efforts, enthusiasm, heart rate responses and many more are the tools we have at our disposal. How we use them just about describes our success or failure at coaching. If you have the talent available and don’t succeed, perhaps this zone is the one to look at closely. Swimmers should be encouraged to keep log books. Often this can be a real pain in the ‘you know where’ if the squad is large but it is worth the effort even if only to gauge progress. If information on the swimmer’s body weight, diet and health is collected in this log book over a period of time, the coach can then discuss any present shortcomings, looming, problems and perhaps prevent a possible slide down the mine.’

The effectiveness of the program can also be calculated if the swimmer notes the body and mind responses to certain sets and how it affected them. Correctly identifying negative thought patterns could be a plus. Perceiving progress in terms of times as a result of training intensity is vital for further improvement. If the program you have constructed on a “scientific” basis from dogmatic regimens in popular use is causing your swimmers to self-destruct by over-training, then it is time to change to a more common sense approach.

So what happens if your swimmer does come down with one of these symptoms? Most medics would suggest a period of rest and recuperation of not less than 6 weeks. That is, complete rest. There is however some evidence to support the theory that a diet of very light exercise may hasten recovery. The workload must not go beyond the aerobic stage and begins with just a few minutes per day. Of course, recovery depends on the severity of the condition but it could possibly extend to 3 months.

Some regeneration processes such as massage, hydrotherapy and relaxation techniques coupled with floating in salt water tanks shut off from all outside influences have been tried with success. It may be expedient at this time to summarize some of the factors that are suspect in the over-training, syndrome. These are not in order of importance.

Stress or competition

Intensive training of the interval type.

Sudden increases in the training load.

Long, repetitive, boring sets.

Stress at home, school or work.

Insufficient rest or sleep.

Incomplete recovery between hard sets or sessions.

Organ related complaints where no disease exists.

Early warning signs are:

(a) Poor performance – training or competing.

(b) Heart rate responses – active and resting.

(c) Mood changes

(d) Swollen lymph glands.

Log books, as mentioned previously, are certainly one way of maintaining a careful watch on a swimmer’s condition in this regard if notations of well being, thoughts and effects of certain sessions are entered. Another, possibly more effective method of detection of these symptoms is the completion of Psychological Test Questionnaires.

The biggest problem with these test sheets is obtaining truthful and honest answers. There is a tendency to answer the questions simply to please the examiner or to second guess the answer they think is required of them. However, if they are well constructed and most are these days, it is possible to observe patterns of abnormality emerging which may indicate an imminent plight.

HORMONAL IMBALANCE
Other studies abound on this subject of over-training. Urhausen, Gabriel and Kinderman entertained suspicions that hormonal disturbances had links to immune system break down. They speculated that the hormone heavies’ like adrenaline and cortisol were responsible for disruptive inflammatory processes in the exercising athlete.

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline have been shown to increase significantly as the aerobic/anaerobic transition is reached (threshold). The shorter and more intensive the exercise, the higher the ratio of Adrenaline/Noradrenaline.

The metabolic increase rates of cortisol levels appear to be important when the exercise is endurance oriented. Cortisol is suspected of having some chemical control on the release of fatty acids. It is also known that during the post exercise period, cortisol has a role in the resynthesis of muscle glycogen.

Much ado has been made over testosterone levels in both male and female swimmers and how it affects their supply of energy. Research data suggests that it does increase the muscle’s capacity to top up its glycogen storage in the anabolic process of recovery. Which, of course, means faster recovery.

With just these few paragraphs it can be seen that this is a well-researched area. It would be immensely difficult to detail to any degree the research into the pathways of the various systems in this brief article. These systems would include: Peripheral Metabolic, Immunologic, Hormonal and Neuroendocrine systems – way past this author’s capabilities to understand the biological vernacular let alone interpret them! However, it is known that some of the hormones under investigation would include, Testosterone, Cortisol, Adrenaline (epinephrine) and Insulin.

It would be safe to say that although there are indications that a hormonal imbalance is a well-known condition in the intensely trained athlete, it cannot yet be established that it is responsible for the over-trained syndrome or immunological disorder.

Intensive experiments have been carried out on humans and animals without any substantial conclusions on the subject. However, Urhausen et. al. ended their study with the explanation that the most likely cause of swimmers succumbing to infections is related to the complex interaction of both immune and hormonal pathways.

Even with this evidence there is still some thought that repetitive hormonal stressors could lead to a reduced glutamine synthesis in the muscles and this may have a strong bearing on the duplication response of lymphocyte cells.

TAPER PROBLEMS
One more item for discussion: the ground we have just covered relates almost entirely to the over-trained swimmer. But there is another problem that resembles the symptoms of immune dysfunction and occurs when you would least expect it. Probably every coach has experienced this frustrating impasse more than once or twice in their careers. It happens, at the beginning of taper: within a four to six day period of starting the taper. Mostly it is an upper respiratory infection, but often a gastrointestinal condition may also exist.

Why this is so remains a mystery. Over the years dozens of plausible explanations have been offered, any of which could be accurate assessments but again – nothing proven. It appears to affect 10 to 20% of teams in training. Even at the highest level of National teams, with medical staff in abundance, swimmers still fall ill at this particular time. We really can’t afford such waste – at any stage of development and our hard working scientists should pursue this specific bogey with great alacrity. It has now been well-established that these complaints stem from over-training. Why then do they strike at a time when the athlete appears to be in adaptation? That is, when all recovery processes are in full cry? Has the immune system been badly weakened by over intensive exercise? Is it possible that the vital organs are in a kind of toxic shock?

INTO THE FUTURE
What does the future hold? Research into over-training has to be an urgent priority. In the matter of hormonal measurements it is possible that the field of endocrinology may play an important role with a systematic plan of research. A simple diagnostic method of early detection of immune dysfunction is long overdue. Is it too much to hope for a non-invasive process? Or even a micro method of blood withdrawal? If this were possible, a more frequent examination and systematic form of standard testing could be carried out. The role of the sports scientist has never been under such pressure to perform.

It is this writer’s opinion that far too many years were wasted chasing lactate bunnies down their holes for too many dead ends. It still is a useful training tool but have we pursued lactate research as an exercise device as far as we need? Like all criteria of this nature, it requires frequent testing to obtain accurate data and to form a conclusion.

Coupled with the initial setup, it is still too expensive a process for the struggling squad. Nevertheless, it is known to be a profitable method of detecting abnormal lactate concentrations at certain speeds that could indicate an immune problem exists. Take care though, as muscle glycogen depletion also is believed to initiate this condition. Heart Rate monitors likewise, are not cheap and while providing more than helpful information, cannot always give an accurate, individual readout. For training purposes, hand timed counts are probably precise enough to give a clear picture. Much has been written and claimed about heart rate training programs. To a certain extent the claims on critical training speeds are questionable but in an over-training situation as detailed earlier, the monitoring results are priceless. There are other indicators that are alleged to divulge over-training;most are expensive and few provide proven or accurate measures.

Certain enzymes discovered in muscle tissue after heavy exercise were thought to be Indicators of tissue damage and a pointer that over-training was imminent. However, the belief is now that these enzyme increases may be just a harmless part and parcel of the normal training routine.

Other physical factors measured by researchers in an effort to discover the origins of the over-training syndrome include blood pressure, saliva, oxygen consumption and blood and urinary proteins. There is no confirmation that these measures were confirmed guilty of being part of any immune decline. Even more certainly, neither could they be considered as a quick poolside investigation during workouts!

Perhaps it is not only time to explore and medicate the more destructive developments of over-training but likewise continue to research for valid recovery processes – not just after sets and sessions but also micro and macro periods.

What else do we require? We need a better understanding of over-training and that means a reliable gauge, and that relates to an efficient and accurate model of assessing just where the swimmer’s tolerance limit of each energy system is. Experience is a great tool to possess when visually evaluating a swimmer’s condition but it is not infallible and we all make mistakes. We need to minimize if not entirely eliminate those errors. Perhaps someday

Nutrition: The Power of Protein
Reprinted ASCA News Vol. 96-4
Source: The Physician and Sportsmedicine
By Nancy Clark, MS, RD

Once upon a time, the “best” sports diets were based on steak and eggs. Supposedly, meat-eating athletes were stronger, more muscular, and more aggressive. Today, we know that strength and muscles are built with exercise (not extra protein), and that carbohydrates provide the fuel needed for muscle-building exercise.

But in the transition from a high-protein to high-carb diet, many athletes have eliminated meat-and have also overlooked the importance of protein. Some have taken the public health recommendations to eat less saturated fat to the extreme and are surviving on fat-free bagels and pasta. This type of diet may seem ideal, but in addition to being low in protein, it lacks important nutrients such as iron (needed to carry oxygen to working muscles) and zinc (needed for healing).

Many of these so-called “vegetarian’ athletes are simply non-meat eaters who have not bothered to replace meat protein with plant proteins. They may think they are gaining a competitive edge, but they are actually hindering themselves. They often have lingering colds, nagging injuries, poor recovery from workouts, and overall fatigue as dietary imbalances take their toll.

Protein has recently reentered the spotlight. Some sports nutrition gurus advocate getting as much as 30% of daily calories from protein, double the standard 12% to 15% recommendation. Confused? Join the club. Here are some protein questions and answers that should help.

Why is protein important for athletes?

Protein is made up of chains of amino acids, some of which our bodies cannot manufacture. Protein is essential for building and maintaining muscles, as well as repairing the muscle damage that occurs during training. Protein is also needed to make red blood cells, produce hormones, boost your immune (disease-fighting) system, and help keep hair, fingernails, and skin healthy. Athletes who are protein deficient may complain about having hair that falls out easily and fingernails that grow slowly and break easily. Female athletes who eat a protein-poor diet may also stop having periods.

How much protein do athletes need?
There isn’t an exact number for athletes because protein needs vary, depending on whether an athlete is growing, rapidly building new muscle, doing endurance exercise, or dieting, in which case protein is used as a source of energy. Protein requirements for athletes are higher than the current recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of 0.4 g of protein per pound of body weight, which is based on the needs of nonexercisers. Protein recommendations for athletes are commonly expressed in a range to include a safety margin. If you do the math (1g of protein has 4 calories), you’ll see that you don’t need to have 30% of your calories come from protein.

Do bodybuilders need more protein than runners?
No. Per pound of body weight, bodybuilders actually need less protein than endurance athletes such as runners. That’s because protein, more precisely the amino acids that are the building-blocks of protein, is actually used for fuel during intense exercise, particularly when carbohydrates are not available. Protein can provide up to 10% of energy during exercise when a person is carbohydrate depleted. But here’s the catch: Even though endurance athletes may need more protein per pound of body weight, they tend to need a smaller total intake of protein because they often weigh less than bodybuilders. For example, a 200-pound bodybuilder may need about 140 g of protein a day (0.7 g of protein per pound), whereas a 150-pound marathoner may need about 120 g of protein per day (0.8 g of protein per pound). Most people can get enough protein through their diet, eliminating the need for protein supplements. Is red meat bad for athletes?

Lean cuts of red meats are not bad for athletes. The best choices include flank steak, London broil, eye of the round, and extra-lean ground beef. Besides being protein-rich, lean red meat is an excellent source of iron and zinc.

Some athletes are afraid of the cholesterol in red meats. But actually the cholesterol content of red meat is similar to that of chicken and fish. Yes, fatty hamburgers, pepperoni, bacon, and ribs are unhealthy and should be eaten only occasionally, if at all. But athletes can healthfully have about 4 oz of lean meat two to four times per week. In fact, a lean roast beef sandwich could be a healthier choice for the heart than a veggie sandwich packed with cheese.

Can athletes who choose a vegetarian diet get adequate protein?
Yes. Vegetarian athletes can eat enough protein to satisfy their bodies’ needs if they wisely choose plant proteins. Lacto-ovo vegetarians (who eat eggs, milk, yogurt, cheese, and other dairy foods but no meat) can most easily consume adequate protein because these foods are excellent sources of life-sustaining protein and contain all the essential amino acids.

The key for total vegetarians, or vegans (who eat no milk, eggs or other animal proteins), is to eat a variety of grains that have complementary amino acids. For example, beans and rice is an example of mixing legumes (peas and beans) and grains. Also, tofu is an excellent addition to a vegetarian diet. Tofu has made headlines because it is a high quality plant protein that contains all essential amino acids and offers the bonus of phytochemicals that protect against heart disease and cancer.

A word of caution: Although vegetarian athletes can consume adequate protein from their diet, they have to be willing to eat large amounts of plant proteins. This is often easier for men with hearty appetites than for weight-conscious women. If you are eating a vegetarian diet that consists primarily of grains, fruits, and vegetables, you are probably eating an unbalanced diet. You might want to consult with a sports nutritionist who can help you add the right amount of protein. For a referral to a local sports nutritionist, call the American Dietetic Association’s referral network at 1-800-366-1655.

Remember. You, your physician, and your nutritionist need to work together to discuss nutrition concerns. The above information is not intended as a substitute for appropriate medical treatment.

Plant
Baked beans, 1 c 14
Lentil soup, 10.5 oz 11
Tofu, extra firm, 3.5 oz 1.1
Refried beans, 1/2 c 7
Hummus, 1/2 c 6
Kidney beans, 1/2 c 6
Peanut butter, 1 Tbsp 4.5
Almonds, dried, 12 3